ALL PILLS IN KANT
The aim of Kant's philosophy is to make a science of metaphysics. The philosophers who are committed to answering the question "What is man?" Are engaged in the explanation of how to embrace the whole of reality with a rational explanation. But the Kantian philosophy reveals a fundamental element of epistemology (the philosophy of knowledge =): the limits of man by his condition. For this Kant departs from the philosophy of the Enlightenment 700, and exceeds the radical skepticism of Hume showing in a scientific manner the potential and the limits of human knowledge.
Hume called the sensitive knowledge and experimental as an "ad hoc post hoc" because it focuses reported about a finding similar causes of similar effects. Only in mathematics, the English philosopher had found certainty, all the rest borders on the ground of probability. Kant departs from Hume. The man has some obvious limitations due to his physical condition, but still approaches to the study of things beyond the possibilities. While we can not study what transcends sensory experience, it is true that there is a real effort and objective man against metaphysical (= beyond the physical, beyond what our senses can grasp), and this effort, being real and objective, we can study.
When we know we establish a relationship between phenomena (= what appears to me, what my senses can grasp), a relationship that obviously brings together two elements: what is known and its attribute. For example, if your body is heavy. Where is this relationship? Kant is essentially agree with Hume, but he wants to pass, giving the knowledge of the laws governing the character of universality.
The Critique of Pure Reason Kant
feels the need to give an order, an arrangement, the manner in which avviene la conoscenza. La ragione umana pretende di conoscere ciò che i sensi non le permettono di vedere, e quindi Kant chiama la ragione a un tribunale, in cui ne verranno giudicate potenzialità e limitazioni. E questo tribunale é la prima delle tre Critiche kantiane, e viene chiamata appunto della ragione pura, per distinguerla da quella della ragione pratica, che indaga la moralità e l’etica dell’uomo, e da quella del giudizio, che ne indaga il gusto e il piacere del bello.
I GIUDIZI
Il giudizio é l’unione di due o più elementi. Secondo Kant la scienza si basa su tre tipi di giudizi:
giudizi analitici a priori, che sono utili perché immutabili, ma che non aggiungono nothing new to knowledge, because the predicate is already implicit in the subject (example: the body is extended);
synthetic judgments a posteriori, so that increase knowledge, they add something that is not included in the subject, but this addition has universal value and necessary (for example, if your body is heavy) because it is the fruit of experience alone;
synthetic a priori judgments, which are those of their scientific knowledge as universal and necessary, as this adds to the subject that the predicate has the indisputable comfort of laws (eg: heat expands the metal).
This is a revolution which Kant defines Copernican no coincidence, because implies a reversal of the axis cognitive subject-object: it is not the person who bend the law SIDEV sell'ogetto but vice versa. The philosophy of Kant, and the same partition of the Critique of Pure Reason, are exactly those transcendental because it transcends the object (= go beyond the object) and the Kantian philosophy is not concerned with the object but the subjective way of knowing can a priori. The transcendental
THE METAPHOR OF TELEVISION
Kant uses the term Transcendental - not transcendent - to establish its epistemological investigation. Normally in philosophy we have two research perspectives:
immanent, that is, the concrete, the objective what can be touched with the hand, such things.
the transcendent, that is what is beyond the concrete, subjective, outside the sensitive, such as the gods.
Clearly if we seek a universal law, a principle can not be immanent, because if that were the case would be subject to the laws of becoming. A principle is transcendent because it must be perfect and absolute.
Kant, however, intends to make the Met and a science clearly says that all knowledge starts from experience. It 'so obvious that it would be a transcendent principle to external reality and therefore not subject to sensible experience. The prospect of research work Kantian a real Copernican revolution: Kant does not study so much the object of knowledge, but the person who know the object. The metaphor of television
A television program is transmitted simultaneously, is universal to everyone. If you watch a TV program can reach out and touch what's on the screen? No. We can not measure the height of a TV personality or know how much it weighs. However, we can measure the height and weight of the spectator who watches TV. This is the purpose of research transcendental. Find a universal principle, but not part of the subject and object, the viewer, not the television program.
the partition of the critique of reason PURA
Le fonti della conoscenza sono:
la sensibilità, che si attua mediante le forme pure di spazio e di tempo, ed é studiata dall’Estetica Trascendentale;
l’intelletto, che elabora i dati sensibili mediante le categorie, ed é studiato dall’Analitica Trascendentale;
la ragione, che pretende di cogliere globalmente la realtà mediante le idee di anima, mondo e Dio, oltrepassando i limiti imposti dalla sensibilità, ed é studiata dalla Dialettica Trascendentale.
ESTETICA TRASCENDENTALE
Kant ritiene che si possa conoscere scientificamente solo ciò che cade nella sfera della sensibilità e dell’intelletto, and calls the phenomenon, to distinguish it from what falls outside of this sphere, and that is called noumenon (= no problem, I do not what it appears), and the noumenon is treated in the Transcendental Dialectic. The word derives from aesthetic esthesis, or sensory perception, and in this part of Kant highlights the way in which man knows. All knowledge starts from experience, and this needs to be sensitive. Knowledge sensitive and receptive and active, takes the phenomenon and then organizes it. For this Kant defines those who are pure forms of sensible knowledge, forms because "shape" to knowledge, even to make possible the knowledge and therefore must come first it. The pure forms of knowledge are significant space and time: space and shape of the external sense, that is the place where the phenomena occur, the timing and form of internal sense, and is the ordering of the changing phenomena . It is our sensitivity to make this possible mechanism, because they need the assurance that the content is given to be able to perceive significantly.
transcendental logic
PART
TRANSCENDENTAL ANALYTIC
The second step of the system of the Critique of Pure Reason is made up of the Transcendental Logic, Kant divides in Analytic and Dialectic: the first is the part that concerns the search for a unifying principle of knowledge and highlights the way in which the contents of sensory experience is transformed from subjective to objective, while the second is the analysis of the claims of reason against non-phenomena. The Analytical is divided into two parts: Analytical concepts and analytical principles. The Analytic of concepts examine the pure forms of the intellect, the same way the Aesthetics examines the pure forms of sensibility. The analytical principles of research instead of giving the element that allows universal and absolute knowledge. Esthetic
objects of knowledge are significant data and insights, while nell'Analitica objects are thought and thought and the power to issue judgments: we have no insight but it works, and intellect has a unifying character of the multiplicity of phenomena in the reality of the senses.
think and judge and judge is to attribute a predicate to a subject. Referring to the Greek Logic Kant ascribes to each assessment category, which is a form of pure thought, which gives validity to the trial itself. He prepares a table with twelve categories corresponding to particular forms of feedback, and divided into four groups, quantity, quality, relation and manner.
If the category gives validity to what gives validity reviews categories? We now know that the category used to organize the insights from the sensitivity so that they can be thought of by the judgments. But what makes them good? The sensible world is incomplete, and changing, which means we have to unify this data? Once the phenomena are intuitive, once you are conceived, involved a further unifying activities that Kant calls I think, or transcendental apperception, which is the unity of all human knowledge. This activity is as a rule, because it brings together what is perceived and what is thought by categories. But be careful, I think the creator has no prerogative. The Ego penso é una regola che vale solo nei casi di conoscenza fenomenica, e anche le sue eccezioni, sono astrazioni basate sulla presenza dei fenomeni sensibili. L’Io penso senza la conoscenza dei sensi non serve a nulla. Le leggi che regolano la conoscenza scientifica descrivono le condizioni a cui la conoscenza deve sottostare, e in tal senso l’Io penso é un legislatore, ma deve avere i dati della conoscenza sensibile per operare.
Kant deve quindi spiegare come le categorie possano operare sulla realtà fenomenica. Ciò avviene in quanto il tempo condiziona gli oggetti, ma è a sua volta condizionato dall'intelletto. Di conseguenza, tramite il tempo, l'intelletto è in grado di condizionare gli oggetti fenomenici. Questa solution relies on the doctrine of the schematic, meaning the schema representation of an intuitive concept.
with the doctrine of Kant's transcendental schematic matches in each category Aristotle (quantity, quality, etc..) Form a space-time, showing that the categories are laws of the mind as space and time with no objects are an abstraction that exists only in the ego-I think that puts them on the "thing-in-itself" to order the world. Sensitivity is the reception of the "thing-in-itself," his unconscious modeling-ordination with the space and time and the result of conscious vision. It is not a dream chosen by the ego, but an interpretation that depends on and varies with the inputs that are the "thing-in-itself" that is undefined, but indeterminate.
Here Kant defines the principles of the pure understanding, that the ground rules by which is the application of the categories to objects. These are four such categories:
Axioms of intuition (the category of quantity): say a priori that all phenomena provide insights of the extensive quantities and therefore can be known only through the successive synthesis of its parts;
Anticipations of Perception (categories of quality): say a priori that any perceived phenomenon has intensive quantity and time are infinitely divisible;
Analogies of experience (category the report): say a priori that the experience is a necessary plot of relationships based on principles:
a) the permanence of substance;
b) of causality;
c) of the mutual
Postulates of empirical thought in General (categories of modes):
determine a) what is possible;
b) what is real;
c) what is needed.
Particular laws can be derived only from experience.
The
the noumenon noumenon, from the greek νούμενον (nooúmenon, what is thought) is the 'essence thinkable, but unknowable intelligible in its nature ", the" thing itself "before they manifest as a phenomenon.
Because we can know only the phenomenal reality, what appears, Kant is convinced that beneath the surface, the phenomenon that changes as we perceive it through sensitivity which changes from moment to moment, from person to person, there must be an immutable basis of phenomenal reality, the "thing itself" but this just phenomenal because we will never know but just think there is.
The noumenon is identified in the reality unknowable and unreachable through direct knowledge, but only thanks to the intuition of its mere existence.
The attempt to full knowledge of the noumenon is operated by traditional metaphysics, which tends to act as a true science: an attempt doomed to failure because of the non-phenomenal noumenon.
Knowing has as limit the experience, because, after this proceeding, there is no evidence of its merits. Then we can only know the phenomenal reality, the reality for us-but never the reality in-itself. This "in-itself, which for us is foreclosed, can be known only by divine intelligence any more but can not be cognitive relationship with us. Kant identifies the 'in-itself "with the greek word noumenon. Kant distinguishes the experience in two ways. The first involves only the sensory experience, while the second includes the totality of phenomenal knowledge, that is sensory knowledge through a priori forms of mind. PART TWO
Transcendental Dialectic
In the second part of the Logic Kant faces a delicate question: can metaphysics be a science? This is perhaps the keystone of the Kantian system. If the mind moves away from the safe ground of sense experience is exposed to mistakes and illusions. We have seen how the aesthetic sense based on intuition as well outside of space and time, and how the internal sense Analytical based on the categories and I think the ego. The Dialectics is the body of metaphysics, and as such its knowledge on matters which Kant called the Platonic ideas, that is, copies of things, images, to emphasize the illusory. The Dialectic of the external sense founded on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe World, the internal sense the idea of \u200b\u200bsoul, and unifies the reality with the idea of \u200b\u200bGod Kant does not deny legitimacy to the claims of reason, indeed, but it feels the error when claims go as far as to turn them into tools for their structural needs. You may not know what our senses can not intuit. This is how three "science" with the quotes, that is the rational cosmology (world), the rational psychology (soul) and rational theology (God).
psychology rational soul identifies the absolute subject from which derive all the inner psychic phenomena. the reasoning is wrong, in that it applies to I think the category of substance. L "I think it can indeed be seen as a unifier, as a function of the intellect, but can not know.
The rational cosmology based on the idea of \u200b\u200bworld hypothesis unattainable, as devoid of any empirical basis: This error produces what Kant called antinomies, which are unsolvable because they do not own a secure base. I sensed that our senses phenomena occur on a limited range of sensitivity, and therefore can not be traced to the complex causes, and related to a set of external entities.
the antinomies Kant highlights four sets of claims to the contrary (thesis / antithesis) which are defined as logical contradictions or paradoxes, even if that statement is not entirely accurate. In any contradiction or pair of statements is not possible to determine whether the claim is true ol 'antithesis, and what distinguishes the antinomies by normal pairs of opposites in which we can identify the true and false (the sun is hot and is cold); contradiction comes from the greek αντινομια composed of αντι "against" and a derivative of νομος "legge"
Secondo Quintiliano, "la parola antinomia significa propriamente conflitto di leggi", quale ad esempio il paradosso dell'impiccagione. Nel "Dizionario di Filosofia" Nicola Abbagnano scrive che Kant estese il concetto ad indicare il conflitto con se stessa in cui la ragione si trova in virtù dei suoi stessi procedimenti.
Alla maniera dei ragionamenti dei sofisti, le antinomie kantiane sono affermazioni opposte, ciascuna dimostrabile logicamente ed in modo ineccepibile senza contraddizione nelle ragioni l'una dell'altra. In pratica, sono proposizioni probabilmente vere o false (ossia se ne può dare prova), ed inconfutabili di per sé. Ciò in quanto hanno le loro fondamenta in un presupposto inconoscibile, ossia la reality, or in the words of Kant, "the true nature of the world." Because the thing itself, that reality is unknowable to Kant, reason can not demonstrate or prove, and certainly in a peremptory manner, any of the four antinomies Kant. 
first antinomy
Thesis: the world has a beginning in time and space, is enclosed within limits.
Antithesis: The world is infinite in both time and space. In the proof
Kant refers to the category of quality. Even in the current cosmology, the theory is true if we accept the big bang theory, but the antithesis is true in some other cosmological assumptions, for example in the Steady State model or in some models of inflationary universe. Even if the Big Bang, the volume of the Universe can be finite, but there are no limits or boundaries, as on the surface of a sphere: the border as there is in the third dimension and not on the surface, the boundary of spacetime is in the fourth dimension and we do not perceive.
second antinomy
Thesis: each thing is composed of simple parts that other things are made up of simple parts.
Antithesis: There is nothing easy, everything is complex. In the proof
Kant refers to the category of quantity. Even here we note that particle physics is still in search of the constituents last of the matter, and yet even these, because of the properties of quantum mechanics, can be interpreted as overlapping states or particles. Other models, such as string theory back to the theory of the continuum, considering the particles "projections" in 3 dimensions of string constant defined, who have 10 or 11 instead. Still other theories, such as loop quantum gravity, meanwhile, find that there are indivisible grains (many) even spacetime.
third antinomy
Thesis: Causality according to the laws of nature is not the only one which can be derived from all the phenomena of the world. You must allow for the explanation of them also a causality of freedom.
Antithesis: In the world there is no freedom, but everything happens only in accordance with the laws of nature. In the proof
Kant refers to the category of relation. Even here, though the theory of hidden variables in quantum mechanics is now discredited, and then applies the theory, there are demonstrations of how the quantum behavior can emerge from complex systems and non-linear, even though no one knows how to prove it experimentally.
FOURTH Antinomies
thesis: there is a need that is causing the world.
Antithesis: There is no need, nor in the world nor out of the world that it is because of it.
is strongly diminished. In
rational theology Kant examines the evidence of God, understood as a totality that unifies the whole world and soul.
The ontological proof a priori, already seen by Anselmo and Leibniz, provides for the deduction of the existence of God by the fact that it is necessary and justified by his own perfection, since God is innate in us as the One to whom nothing is lacking, the His existence can not be produced by us, we are limited, and therefore God must exist. The error consists in a deduction of existence, which can only be sensed by the senses.
The cosmological proof is based on experience, that requires a cause not due to the phenomena: for Kant, is based on an arbitrary step because it brings together two different things, a phenomenal and noumenal. Finally, the physical evidence
teleological refers to the need for a necessary order to unify nature, but according to Kant it is not necessary that the phenomena of nature fall into a necessary order from the outside, and any attempt to unify the phenomena under an external cause is arbitrary taxation.
Kant once again highlights the inability to know what falls lé experience, but does not come to atheism, agnosticism as a determined and then only by the inability to rule on these issues. Kant, therefore, comes to a regular use of the ideas of pure reason, a purpose which is limited by the unknowability of noumena but at the same time to unify the real knowledge to all external. The noumenon is not known but it is unthinkable, and its applicability is only valid if we bear in mind the limits imposed on human knowledge by his sensitive condition.
THE CRITIQUE OF PRACTICAL REASON
The Critique of Practical Reason is a work in which Kant deals with ethical and moral, political, and that of freedom. In this work Kant explains what are the duties of man: in the Critique of Pure Reason, if you try to draw a map human knowledge, here you draw a map of the moral duties of man. In the Critique of Pure Reason Kant shows the claims of reason, who wants to know what can not be given by the senses, while in the Critique of Practical Reason indictment is precisely the tendency of reason to being influenced by the experience. Man is suspended between two worlds, one sensitive and one intelligible, a material and an ideal, a concrete that can be sensed and an abstract that has nothing to do with the senses. The man for his characteristic tendency to exceed the limits of the sensible world to belong to the intelligible world. In this work emerges the character of Kant's Enlightenment, which puts the freedom to basis of ethics, looking for a universal principle of living together, respect, in which the work of the individual should not be an end in itself but should serve for all. And to do this, that the moral law is free from the contingencies of thumb, is to be released from the senses and matter, but they obey a higher principle, valid for all individuals endowed with reason:
MAX AND REQUIREMENTS
Kant distinguishes MAX and REQUIREMENTS: The maximum applies to the individual, and thus subjective, but the requirements are objective and universal and apply to all. In turn, the imperative is hypothetical and divided into CATEGORIES. The hypothetical imperatives always have an end, and then introduce una possibilità, per esempio, se devi... allora... Gli imperativi categorici non danno nessuna possibilità e nessun fine, nessuno scopo. Devi e basta, punto.
MORALE AUTONOMA ED ETERONOMA
Perchè questa rigorosità? Perchè è la stessa morale che lo esige. Se la morale fosse ETERONOMA, sicuramente sarebbe motivata da fini anche nobili ma non avrebbe mai un valore universale. Perchè la morale avvia un valore universale deve essere AUTONOMA, deve cioè valere per tutti, non in base al suo CONTENUTO ma alla sua FORMA.
L’IMPERATIVO CATEGORICO
L’imperativo categorico trova quindi la sua ragion d’essere nella sua universalità e questa può essere expressed in three formulas:
Opera always makes sure that the maxim of your action can be recognized as a principle of universal law - this is a very lofty and noble imperative, which requires the man to always behave correctly, so 'that the their behavior is always a possible model to follow.
Act so that humanity is worth more to you as an end and never as a means - in this case the requirement is clear and requires the utmost respect for the men's and others' person, who should never be considered half but the goal of his own moral action.
Act so that the will itself be considered as universally legislator - here's speech ends with the imperative that a will is the will of the individual, based on selfishness, but a wish of everyone, and good for everyone.
FREEDOM '
For Kant, man is free and freedom is the foundation of all human action. but the man is not perfect and is in a condzione of eternal tension between sensibility and reason, eludes him precisely because of this empirical explanation. But there can be no empirical speigazione, because if that were all human action would be influenced by the sensitivity and would never have a universal character. The man has only to obey onnedisce and the categorical imperative as it is a rational being. Not because it must be obeyed to avoid punishment, if so happen moral action would be correct, but we can not speak of a moral self, because the action would have contained a moral purpose. The legal notice is in fact completely separate and independent.
should not be virtuous to happiness, happiness should never be an end. We must be virtuous because it is being endowed with reason and virtue leads to happiness then. But virtue and happiness are not united, there is a rift between them, due to the distance between the sensible world and the rational. Why Thus is fulfilled the moral action Kant is forced to admit an intermediate world, metafenomenico, whose elements are the same as the Dialectic, that is the numen, the ideas of God and soul of the world, and that Kant calls PRESUPPOSES here, why do not I can be proven but can only be accepted.
Causality free - human activity is conditioned by the senses, and then apparently mechanical, but it is actually free, because it determined by the action of an institution that can not be intelligible intuition.
immortal soul - the ultimate goal should be the sanctity of man, which is carried out with the perfect adequacy to the moral law, but in this world this is not possible, you can admit only a process to infinity, that Kant is forced to postulate.
Existence of God - as the man his efforts virtuous behavior does not cause happiness, not in the earthly world, so there must be a God that equitably allocates the happiness on the merits of individual behavior.
With the work Kant's three postulates a conciliation between the two worlds, in which man can reach with the senses and the moral, then finding a middle ground that allows him to explain how man can hope to concluding his virtuous path to happiness. But these assumptions are not true, if not fall within the metaphysics or religion: they have their own reality and as such have a horizon, an ultimate limit of human action. CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE
The Critique of Judgement once again focuses attention on the bipolarity of man, suspended between two worlds, between phenomenon and noumenon, between sensible and intelligible. After examining the nature of speculative reason and practical one, after evaluating the possibilities and limits of knowledge and the primacy of morality, Kant is trying to build a bridge between these two worlds. The foundation of this bridge is not the case for obvious reasons in sensitivity and intellect, which are limited by the conditions of sensory experience, and thus Kant is looking for a third way, one of the PROCEEDINGS, the common feeling. For Kant there are two types of opinion, the decisive and reflective judgments. The decisive contains both the particular and the universal, and indeed determines, that is the subject theoretically. The reflective giudzio instead contains only the particular, and then we produce ourselves the universal through the trial itself. It is called reflective because it reflects their own, or part from what has been given, through decisive, to capture the harmony that exists between things and between things and people. In the Critique of Pure Reason Kant explains how and what man knows but does not explain the relationship between things and between things and man himself. Man lives in fact in a state of perpetual insecurity and always tries to grasp the purpose, goal, the purpose of things. Obviously this is an effort without need for knowledge, because we know that man can never know in a scientific manner that is not given by the senses. Despite this, however, man needs to have everything under control, he needs to find an ultimate purpose of things, a harmony. As the ideas are really no entities are also reflective judgments noumentici, worthless knowledge, serves only to express their this need to give an order, an ultimate purpose to things. Through practical reason Kant explains, by imposing a universal law, the unity between the two worlds, with regard to human action. In the Critique of Judgement Kant speaks instead of feeling that must bring unity and harmony of things, thus avoiding a clear separation between the sensible world and the intelligible world.
The feeling is expressed through two types of judgments, aesthetic evaluation, which deals with beauty, and that allows us to understand intuitively the purpose of nature, and the Judgement teleological, which allows you to seize this purpose Conceptualism.
aesthetic judgments in aesthetic judgments beauty is the feeling aroused by the relationship between us and objects. is not a property of objects but a reflection that is set in motion by the relationship between us and the thing capable of arousing.
Beautiful is what they like with no interest - because it responds to a need for material or physical need.
Beautiful is that which pleases universally without a concept - as the player like any man, even if everyone's subjective attributes of the royalties, which is good for everyone in different ways but still beautiful (the concept that Kant calls the subjective universality).
The beauty is the shape of an object's purpose, as this is perceived without representation of purpose - why we can not understand the purpose in a particular subject.
Bello is no concept of what is recognized as being a pleasure to be - although it requires subjective universally to all men. The beauty
therefore has no interest, why do not correspond to a physical need, why not have a concept like universalemtne despite different motivations, is the shape of an object purpose do, because we could not take this purpose in particular, and turns out to be necessarily imposed on all men.
ASSESSMENT PURPOSE
If the beautiful things about the limited, but the concerns SUBLIME the unlimited world. To this world he has an attitude of wonder as he realizes his limitations and therefore his sofrzo in trying to overcome them do more. The nature for man, which is made of sensitivity, it is always reduced to a mere mechanism, everything is created, everything is destroyed. But man is also right, that is, strive for gain to exceed the limits of sensibility, and this effort led him to seek a natural phenomenon in any END delegated to a higher intelligence. Here Kant is truly enlightened, looking for a reason estrna imperfection of things in the world harmonic organization of things themselves. The search for order in everything, attributed a un ente perfetto, non obbedisce ad alcuna ragione conoscitiva o speculativa, non ha quindi nessuna consistenza teoretica, ma è necessario perchè in questo modo l’uomo riesce a trovare una spiegazione alla vita organica. Come per i postulati della ragion pratica questa spiegazione ha solo un carattere regolativo, quindi non ha alcun carattere di verità.
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