HELLENIC
The term ethics is the fourth time in the history of philosophy old and corresponds historically to the domination of Alexander the Great on Greek poleis. The policy and customs are hopelessly doomed to a grim utilitarianism, and he lost the democratic ideals transmitted by post-Socratic speculation and its schools. The philosopher, disillusioned, fleeing from the world and looking for comfort in himself, the most important issue becomes the moral duties of man and related to the research, a time characterized by the logic and metaphysics, now runs through the pursuit of happiness, freedom and the best way to get comfortable with being themselves. Change the value city / state: the centrality of the state, once the common good, is now an anonymous power and inaccessible; the old social classes also lose value in the name of a deified emperor and an oppressive and repressive military apparatus, then the road becomes individualism, as the citizen is not more strongly motivated to participate in public life. That period of
ethical anthropology is negative, which can no longer investigate man but on its limits, and the same ethical concepts are expressed in negative form: ataraxia, apraxia, Apone, apathy.
EPICURE
Epicureanism did not have much luck out of Greece, while remaining one of the best speculative forms of Hellenism, it was an exclusive creation of Epicurus and his disciples it deepened the thought presented itself as a meditation that would protect humans from his restlessness and lack of serenity because of superstition and the predominance of the instincts. Epicurus seeks to liberate humanity from all forms of concern, and sees in the atom to escape from the two great terrors of mankind, the afterlife and the intervention of God in human affairs. Epicurus' philosophy as does the care of the soul and the only cure, however, because it is result of knowledge. The wise man who wants to appease the concerns must become the servant of philosophy. The Epicurean philosophy is divided into a section on physics, one relating to the Rectory or logic, and one on ethics and morals.
Epicurean cosmology is similar to that of Democritus, assuming a homogeneous field divided into a plurality of atoms that move in a vacuum of pure mechanical causality, but while assigned to the atoms Democritus strict requirements in their fall perpendicular to the atoms of Epicurus assigns a capacity of Lucretius called clinamen deviation. It is here of a freedom given to the atoms that choose to join unpredictably. Even Epicurus considers atoms as indivisible and indefinable entities, with a weight and consequently a fall, you fall right in the aggregation of atoms. The knowledge works like this: the heavier atoms che colpiscono e si aggregano ad atomi più leggeri (quelli dell’anima). Anche l’anima infatti è costituita da atomo, quasi impalpabili ma pur sempre materiali, e pertanto inevitabilmente soggetta alla legge del clinamen e chiaramente anche alla libertà del volere e alla sorte del corpo: l’anima muore col corpo ed è assurdo pensare a una sua sopravvivenza nell’aldilà. Stolto è chi teme la morte, sostiene Epicuro, quando c’è vita lei non c’è e quando lei c’è saremo noi a non esserci, dunque non dovremo preoccuparcene.
La canonica epicurea è l’architettura logica della filosofia di Epicuro; essa deriva il suo nome proprio dal canone che è la regola o la squadra con cui un architetto costruisce un edificio; allo stesso tempo il canone epicureo è un criterio di verità e per Epicuro il miglior criterio di verità è costituito dalla sensazione: quando i nostri sensi sono colpiti dagli atomi di un oggetto noi conosciamo certamente e immediatamente l’oggetto, coadiuvati dall’attività ordinatrice dell’intelletto che riceve e coordina le impressioni sensibili. E proprio grazie all’intelletto e alla sua capacità di conservare la memoria degli oggetti impressionati, possiamo contare sull’esercizio della prolessi o anticipazione, mediante cui riteniamo erroneamente di conoscere qualcosa senza essere colpiti dai suoi atomi. Per Epicuro i sensi non possono ingannare. L’errore stems from our ability anticipatory often deceive us and divert us from the truth.
Obviously the feeling may be pleasant or unpleasant. The truly wise man searches only the good feelings and takes on a delightful attitude toward reality. The pursuit of pleasure is not an end in itself, but leads to virtue real virtue is the fulfillment of those needs that do not involve stress or anxiety. The Epicurean ethical ideal is peace in the soul, or ataraxia. The search of the Epicurean pursuit of pleasure is not superfluous, but rather consist in material things and over, leading dissatisfaction and unrest. Epicurus In fact, consider three types of needs: those natural and necessary, those natural and unnecessary and non-natural, and indeed they are of fatigue and unfulfilled. True test is the one who is content, hidden lives and fight against pain (Apone) so unflappable (ataraxia). Epicurus regarded philosophy as a quadrifarmaco, who looked beyond the well-known human fears of the afterlife and the fear of God, even the fear of not achieving the good and the fear of pain and evil.
Stoicism Stoicism
The name derives from the porch that Athenian Stoa where Zeno founded his school. Stoicism is definitely the closest address Socratic-Platonic ethical intellectualism between the Hellenistic philosophies. Stoicism is the fundamental concept of fatalistic determinism. For the Stoics the world is governed by a rational necessity, a perfect cosmic order that man can not guide or influence, but only accept and understand. This order is obviously the result of a universal reason and perfect that human reason must comply. For the Stoics and Epicureans as the reason is an instrument of liberation, but always in a negative sense, man is indifferent to life, light and darkness, poverty and wealth, and freedom from the passions to purify the soul . The Stoic philosophy is tripartite in logic, physics and ethics.
Stoic Cosmology conceives the world as a living organism animated by a vital principle that pneuma, similar to the Heraclitean logos. This is something different, a seminal reason (logos spermatikós) which is immanent in nature and is not a principle but an agent of divine order and perfection to which no one can avoid the origin of every event, positive or negative, that , as generated by this rationality, it is perfect and good. According to the Stoics the world proceeds in a continuous repetition of cycles every three hundred years marked by a universal conflagration: everything is born from fire and fire back to repeat the cycle. Clearly, the fate is inexorable, and all shall be assessed for reasons of necessity e di fato; ma il destino è cieco solo per chi non accetta la legge del Tutto e del Bene. Gli stoici, a differenza degli epicurei, ritenevano l’anima immortale: infatti, essendo determinata dalla perfezione del logos, l’anima non muore col corpo e non si deteriora come la materia, ma dopo la morte fisica si ricongiunge al pneuma originario.
Anche per gli stoici l’anima è una tabula rasa che necessita di essere “impressionata” dalle percezioni sensibili. Ma la sensazione isolata non è né assolutamente vera né falsa; la conoscenza infatti richiede un atto attraverso il quale noi accettiamo o respingiamo le sensazioni che si chiama assenso. Zenone raffigurava questo criterio con le mani e associava all’assenso the fist (in fact calls the true opinions cataleptic, from the verb katalombano, or "grab") because the agreement represents the agreement of the phenomenon with other depictions are incidental. Nell'assenso things appear clear and complete, but the language can determine the completeness or clarity of a concept, the link between the utterances of a sentence. For example, say "it is day or night it is" not enough, but the meaning of the phrase is connected utterances, "or it is day or night," if there is day light. " Even the Stoics deny any form of nativism, but supporting the presence of common notions of feelings, however, produced repeated.
Like Socrates and the school as cynical stoicism associated goodness and virtue true science and the evil vice, such as extreme beyond which nothing is worth being considered. All the world is run as seen by a rational order and therefore the task of the wise is to seek the path to virtue than according to this order, and accepting his human helplessness without reservation. The purpose of the Stoic nature is to live in obedience to the second reason, the Stoic philosopher is unperturbed and founded his freedom apathy (no pain) that frees from any feeling. Freedom Stoic-determination is the fact that the rate rises above the material life and the affirmation of freedom itself (even resorting to suicide if necessary). For this reason, while not excluding human relationships, the stoic love to live in isolation as sufficient to itself (self-sufficiency), a citizen of a perfect world and isolated.
SCEPTICISM
address skepticism expressed extreme distrust of man that followed the collapse of ideals and values \u200b\u200bof the Hellenistic period. The skepticism was initiated by Pirrone, but was picked up by the Platonic Academy of Media, Carneades Arcesilaus first and then, finally, was already more widespread in the Christian era by Enesidemo and Sextus Empiricus. It is an extremely thought that the extreme negative criticism carried out by currents up to arrive prior to the devaluation of any objective value. Research is in fact for the first time since Gorgias only a negative value, leading to an eternal search for the man in the belief that nothing is certainly true and knowable, hence the name of skeptical philosophy, from skepsi, namely "research ". This research is dissatisfied with the most fertile ground in the Academy Platonic, because the same philosophy as Plato conceived of an eternal search, destined to remain unsatisfied until he had turned to the world of sense, but Plato had a really great place as a "prize" for the soul, now freed from the body after death, while the rear Academics have lost faith in the objectivity of the ideal world, retaining only the conviction of the falsity of the material world.
Nihilism post Platonic philosophy determines that an address in which, since the man is no longer forced to jail the views arising from sense knowledge, is denied to the human mind to come to truly know the reality and universality of concepts. If this were possible we could use a criterion of validity, the real in itself, but the man does not have the privilege of knowing and condemned to suffer on perceptions only sensitive to objects that he certainly will never know. So the truth is that man will never offer an objective and universal, but assumed and dogmatic.
Obviously, if the sensitive knowledge is unfounded, as it may be said that intellectual here longer valid Aristotelian first principles, since it is technically unnecessary to drop the assumption of the sense impressions and judgments resulting therefrom, and if we look at the Epicurean and Stoic logic will note that even here we do not go beyond the agreement, based on sense knowledge, but knowledge of this type is subjective and is not valid, indeed, just the most obvious things are subjective and less valid. The wise skeptic thus avoids to comment on what captures the senses with (aphasia) and suspending the trial (period) is not obviously possible to express it. The well is no exception to this rule, there is no absolute good. But the essay as
needs to adjust? One of the members of the Media Academy, Carneades, believes that the real test is only the instrument of the probable (pithanòn) can not take anything for certain, this essay can only rely on those theses that receive the most acclaim, and this certainly more real than others, and from these he will direct his actions. He rails against the probable practical Enesidemo, which explains his thesis into ten topics such tropes. Enesidemo complaint because the inability to use the probable, given the differences in three men and the consequent lack of communication: so nothing can be done to stay the proceedings. But the more radical thesis is that of Sextus Empiricus, who denies any claim to logic, physics and even ethics, believing that the real test must be limited solely to the acceptance of sense-impressions without being able to speculate. Sextus Empiricus derives from the attitude of empiricism. Eclecticism
The word eclectic means and eclectic choice is the one who makes a choice. The eclectic philosophy is the philosophy comes to Rome from Greece, met with success from the world cultural Latin. Rome can not boast of a philosophical tradition before his meeting with Greece, Rome and the rest has no real philosophers, as "students of philosophy." The Roman tended to be practical, relevant administrative organization, legal and military rule, then Empire, the period for developing the current spread of the Hellenistic period is between the decadence of Greece and the advent of Christianity and the eclectic philosophy is proposed immediately as a philosophy of man (Humanitas). We say, therefore, that eclecticism is not a philosophical address independently, but groups the issues speculative closer to the needs of man in Rome.
eclectic attitude in the true sense of the word is found in Cicero: Cicero in fact for the culture and philosophy is not science and therefore has no object but is an absolutely liberal and training. Cicero is the real father of eclecticism, since it was Arpino's lawyer to accept speculatively the various themes of Greek philosophy, along with various themes "universal" because they are based on "consensum gentium" attitude eliminated any discrepancies by Cicero thinking, just trying to converge to the allegations in a common expression of this fact "Consensum. The educated man is the man who has "grown", released by the reasoning of the passions: for Cicero and that means being aware of its responsibility and take it with honesty and decency. Honesty is the fundamental feature of the educated man.
next to the eclectic, advanced by Cicero, the Roman cultural life is absorbed by the new trends on Hellenistic Epicureanism and the stoicism. Among the followers of Epicurus are Lucretius, author of the poem "De Rerum Natura", but left the position in favor of a cosmological features ethical less subdued than the predecessor. The most important philosophical
address in Roman culture was undoubtedly Stoicism, which was of a comforting given the period of political crisis. Among the Romans there was more stoic Seneca, Seneca's philosophy was to live according to recover the nature of the Greek Stoics, but in the nature of a mortal man and wise. Wisdom is the element that separates man philosopher Seneca foolish man, and he believes that all men are brothers, were generated by a single body, the nature, and therefore admits the existence of God as a factor in the world Universal and the creator of this constraint. The wise man does not suppress the passions but attempts to convert the Good. These themes recur in the speculation of another Stoic philosopher, Epictetus: Epictetus believes that in nature there are two classes of things, those we can control with our control, such as virtues and passions, and those that escape us as wealth and all that does not belong to the realm of the spiritual. Epictetus have no value for the former, which are part of the human spirit, while the latter should leave the man indifferent to the motto of Epictetus was in fact "stand and refrain" which is meant to endure what we can not control and without any disturbance.
AFTER THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY
With the advent of the Christian world also culturale e filosofico entra in contatto con questa nuova forma di speculazione religiosa. Si preannuncia una nuova era, e di conseguenza inizia quel cammino a ritroso che porterà l’uomo a riscoprire l’Uno. La fine della filosofia greca si accompagna dunque alla nascita di varie tendenze speculative ispirate al recupero dei valori unitari dell’antichità. L’aspetto più interessante di questi nuovi indirizzi è la fusione tra le tematiche di stampo orientale e quelle di stampo occidentale (sincretismo), fusione che è pervasa da una nota di accentuato misticismo che è ispirato dal dilagare del Cristianesimo. Accanto al Neoplatonismo cui dedicheremo una sezione autonoma, bisogna citare due grandi scuole, quella del Neopitagorismo and the Jewish-Alexandrian.
Neopitagorismo initiator of Apollonius of Tyana was one of the most exemplary followers of Pythagoras for neopitagorici God is one and is inaccessible to human thought, to grasp God in His unity man must transcend themselves. The movement neopitagorico expressed the need for a direct relationship with the gods. The Jewish-Alexandrian school
represents the meeting between the two traditions of the same name and has among the highest representatives Philo. Philo makes an allegorical interpretation of the Bible emphasizing the duality between God and matter and affirming the unknowability of God to man. We can say that God is, says Philo, and not what it is. Between God and the world poses a mediator Philo, the logos, of course assuming here that Christian thought, where ideas of all things in the world. Man's job is to get rid of slavery of the flesh through the mystical ascent, culminating in ecstasy, act in which God hears every soul in him identifying himself morally These issues will form the basis of Platonic speculation.
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